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An optical spectrometer and scientific instruments

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An optical spectrometer and scientific instruments

An optical measuring system spectrometer (spectrophotometer, spectrometer,or spectroscope) is an instrument used to measure the properties of light in specific parts of the electromagnetic spectrum,often used in spectral analysis to identify materials.The variable measured is usually light,for example,but can also be the state of polarization.The independent variable is usually the wavelength of light or a unit proportional to photon energy,such as the reciprocal of centimeters or electron volts,which are reciprocal to wavelength.Spectrometers are used in spectroscopy to generate spectral lines and measure their wavelength and intensity.Spectrometers can operate over a wide range of non-optical wavelengths,from gamma rays and X-rays to the far infrared.If an instrument is designed to measure spectra on an absolute scale rather than a relative scale,it is often called a spectrophotometer.Most spectrophotometers are used in the spectral region near the visible spectrum.Typically,any given instrument will operate over a small fraction of this overall range due to the different techniques used to measure different parts of the spectrum.Below optical frequencies (i.e.microwave and radio frequencies),the spectrum analyzer is a closely related electronic device.Spectrometers are used in many fields.For example,they are used in astronomy to analyze radiation from objects and infer their chemical composition.Spectrometers use prisms or gratings to spread light into a spectrum.This allows astronomers to detect many chemical elements through their characteristic spectral lines.These lines are named after the elements that generate them, such as the hydrogen α, β, and γ lines.Glowing objects show bright spectral lines.Dark lines are formed by absorption,such as light passing through gas clouds,and these absorption lines can also identify compounds.Much of what we know about the chemical composition of the universe comes from spectroscopy.

Spectroscopes Optical Measurement Equipmen-nano

Spectroscopes are commonly used in astronomy and certain branches of chemistry.Early beamsplitters were simply prisms with graduations marking the wavelengths of light.Modern spectrometers typically use diffraction gratings,movable slits,and some kind of photodetector,all automatically controlled by a computer.Recent advances have shown increasing dependence on computational algorithms in a range of miniaturized spectrometers without diffraction gratings,for example by using quantum dot-based filter arrays on CCD chips or on individual nanostructures A series of photodetectors realized.By combining prisms,diffractive slits and telescopes,Joseph von Fraunhofer developed the first modern spectroscope,which increased spectral resolution and was reproducible in other laboratories.Fraunhofer also went on to invent the first diffraction spectrometer.Gustav Robert Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen discovered the use of spectrometers in chemical analysis and used this method to discover cesium and rubidium.Kirchhoff and Bunsen's analysis also enabled a chemical interpretation of stellar spectra,including Fraunhofer lines.When a material is heated to an incandescent state, it emits light that is characteristic of the material's atomic makeup.Specific light frequencies produce distinct bands on the scale,which can be thought of as fingerprints.For example,the element sodium has a very characteristic double yellow band at 588.9950 and 589.5924 nanometers,called the sodium D line,a color familiar to anyone who has seen a low pressure sodium vapor lamp.In the original beamsplitter design in the early 1800s, light entered a slit and a collimating lens converted the light into a thin beam of parallel rays. The light is then passed through a prism (in the case of a handheld beamsplitter,usually an Amici prism) that refracts the beam into a spectrum,since different wavelengths are refracted different amounts due to dispersion.This image is then viewed through a tube with a scale that is transposed onto the spectral image, enabling direct measurements of it.With the development of photographic film came more accurate spectrographs.It is based on the same principle as the beamsplitter,but it has a camera instead of the observation tube.In recent years,electronic circuits built around photomultiplier tubes have replaced cameras,allowing more accurate real-time spectral analysis.Photosensor arrays are also used to replace film in spectroscopic systems.This kind of spectral analysis,or spectroscopy,has become an important scientific tool for analyzing the composition of unknown matter,studying astronomical phenomena,and testing astronomical theories.In modern spectrometers in the ultraviolet,visible and near-infrared spectral range, the spectrum is usually given in terms of number of photons per unit wavelength (nm or μm), wavenumber (μm−1, cm−1), frequency (THz) , or energy (eV), the unit is expressed on the abscissa.In the mid to far infrared,the spectrum is usually expressed in units of watts per unit wavelength (μm) or wavenumber (cm−1). In many cases,the spectrum is displayed with implied units (such as "number counts" per spectrum channel).

Examples of scientific instruments

  • Accelerometer,physics,acceleration

  • Ammeter,electrical,amperage,current

  • Anemometer, wind speed

  • Calipers,distances

  •  Calorimeter,heat

  • DNA sequencer,molecular biology

  • Dynamometer, torque/force

  • Electrometer,charge,potential difference

  • Electroscope,electric charge

  • Electrostatic analyzer,kinetic energy of charged particles

  • Ellipsometer, optical refractive index

  • Eudiometer, gas volume

  • Gravimeter,Gravity

  • Hydrometer

  • Inclinometer,slope

  • Interferometers,optics,infrared spectroscopy

  • Magnetic tweezers,biomolecular manipulation

  • Magnetogram,magnetic field

  • Magnetometer,magnetic flux

  • Manometer,barometric pressure

  • Mass Spectrometry,Compound Identification/Characterization

  • Micrometer,distance

  • Microscope,optical magnification

  • NMR spectroscopy, compound identification, medical diagnostic imaging

  • Ohmmeter, resistance/impedance

  • Optical tweezers, nanoscale manipulation

  • Oscilloscope, electrical signal voltage, amplitude, wavelength, frequency, waveform shape/pattern

  • Seismograph, acceleration

  • Spectrogram, sound frequency, wavelength, amplitude

  • Spectrometer, optical frequency, wavelength, amplitude

  • Telescopes, light magnification (astronomy)

  • Thermometer, temperature measurement

  • Theodolite, angles, measurements

  • Thermocouples, temperature

  • Voltmeter,voltage.


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